Embedded Files
Imperatorial Period
The Imperatorial Period is a part of the Roman Republic era and can be described as the beginning of the end of the Roman Republic. This period is marked with internal conflict, assassination, and power struggles that rocked Rome and its perception of itself. Centuries prior, Rome made a decisive decision to throw off the rule by one individual and adopt a government that was ruled by committee. However, these years saw the rise of some of the most powerful and influential figures of Rome that would struggle for ultimate authority and end the Republic as it had stood in 27 BC.
The Imperatorial Period begins with Julius Caesar crossing the Rubicon River and marching on Rome. Previous to this, Gaius Julius Caesar, Pompey Magnus, and Marcus Licinius Crassus made up the 1st Triumvirate. This agreement was established between the three most powerful senators of Rome and allowed them to raise their own personal legions to expand Roman territory and gain influence as Imperators with the Plebians or Roman citizens. This agreement came to an abrupt end in 49 BC. After Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the senate sided with Pompey Magnus in an attempt to repel Caesar's advance. This effort failed and Pompey was driven out of Italy. Caesar would defeat Pompey Magnus at the Battle Of Pharsalus and continue to battle his remaining supporters. In 44 BC, Caesar would proclaim himself as dictator for life which would lead to his assassination only months later during the Ides of March.
Caesar's assassination brought anything but peace. In the immediate aftermath, a new civil war emerged. This time, the contenders were the 2nd Triumvirate consisting of Octavian (Caesar's adopted heir), Marc Antony (Caesar's lead general), and Marcus Lepidus against Caesar's assassins and remnants of Pompey's supporters to include his sons. The latter were known as the liberators, while the former claimed to be intent on the restoration of the Republic. In reality, the Republic as it had stood since 509 BC was gone. No matter which side emerged victorious, Rome was doomed to fall under the rule of one man.
The second Triumvirate of Marc Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus would prevail over the Liberators and the remaining Pompeians but peace was still out of reach. Marc Antony and Octavian quickly found themselves locked in a war that would only allow one to triumph and assume the responsibility of the most powerful man of Rome in almost 500 years. It would be these final years that would place the senate below that of one man. From 27 BC and on, the Senate would play a diminishing role in Rome throughout the next several centuries.
The First Triumvirate - 60 - 53 BC
The First Triumvirate - 60 - 53 BC
M. Licinius Crassus
M. Licinius Crassus
Gaius Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar
Pompey Magnus (The Great)
Pompey Magnus (The Great)
"The Die is Cast" - 49 BC
"The Die is Cast" - 49 BC
The First Civil war - 49 - 45 BC
The First Civil war - 49 - 45 BC
Assassination - 44 BC
Assassination - 44 BC
The Second Triumvirate - 43 - 33 BC
The Second Triumvirate - 43 - 33 BC
Issuer: Marc Antony
Denomination: AR - Denarius
Mint: Mint of Ephesus
Minted Date: 41 BC
Observe:
M•ANT•IMP AVG III VIR•R•P•C•M BARBAT•Q•P (MP and AV ligate), bare head of Marc Antony right.
Translated to: "Marcus Antonius, Imperator (Commander of troops) and Augur (Priest). The 3rd Triumvirate for the restoration of the Republic".
Reverse:
CAESAR•IMP•PONT•III•VIR•R•P•C•, bare head of Octavian right with touseled hair and long sideburn.
Translated to: "Caesar [Octavianvs], Imperator, Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest - an honorific title that Julius Caesar held). Triumvir for the restoration of the Republic.
Commentary:
M
References:
Crawford 517/2. Sydenham 1811. Antonia 51, Barbatia 2 and Julia 96.
Marc Antony
Marc Antony
Octavian
Octavian
Marcus Lepidus
Marcus Lepidus
The Liberators' Civil War - 43 - 42 BC
The Liberators' Civil War - 43 - 42 BC
The Sicilian War - 42 - 36 BC
The Sicilian War - 42 - 36 BC
Pompey The Great was defeated at the battle of Pharsalus and was killed shortly after in Egypt by Ptolemy XII. His legacy did not cease there however. While Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus was killed in 45 BC after one last failed attempt to oppose Caesar's army, Sextus Pompey, the younger son managed to established a foothold in Sicily with a strong naval force that would survive for a decade after his brother's death.
After the defeat of the two brothers in Hispania, Sextus was unable to gather enough support to be able to overcome the 2nd Triumvirate of Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus. He did however posses a effective naval force that won several victories and held Sicily firmly under his control. To pay his legions, Sextus minted a series of coins in Sicily that not only served as a means of payment but also a strong political message that elevated his father's legacy as well as his naval victories.
On the Observe, the bust of Sextus' father, Pompey Magnus (The Great) is featured with priestly implements to remind the recipients of these coins of Sextus' lineage and family legacy as champions for the Roman Republic. The reverse places Neptune in the center with an Aplustre (Warship Standard) and rudder in hands and a foot placed on the prow of a Tireme, the Roman Warship. This depiction speaks to the naval power Sextus held over this part of the Mediterranean. Sextus clearly wanted to communicate that Neptune himself favored his forces during naval warfare. This is further reinforced with the title that Sextus places on these coins: "Prefect of the Fleet and the Maritime Coast by Decree of the Senate". Additionally, the reverse depicts a mythological scene of the Cantanaean brothers that are renowned for displaying Roman values during the eruption of Etna on the Island of Sicily. These brothers carried their parents to safety during the eruption while many inhabitants died trying to save their possessions. This myth would speak volumes to the inhabitants of Sicily and is also indicative of the levying of troops from the island.
While Sextus was a successful General and managed to fend off the powerful forces of the 2nd Triumvirate, it was only a matter of time before his forces were overcome. At the Battle of Naulochus on the North Easter tip of Sciliy, Sextus' naval forces were defeated by Octavian's closed friend and general, Agrippa. With superior ships, Agrippa sunk and routed Sextus' fleet. Sextus escaped and fled to Turkey where he was killed by Marc Antony's officers. Thus ended the last remaining son of Pompey The Great and the final challenger to the 2nd Triumvirate.
The Last of The Pompeians
The Last of The Pompeians
Issuer: Sextus Pompey
Denomination: AR - Denarius
Mint: Cantana, Sicily
Minted Date: 42 - 40 BC
Observe:
MAG PIVS IMP ITER ("Great pious emperor, a second time"), bare head of Pompey Magnus (Pompey the Great) right; capis behind, lituus before.
Reverse:
Neptune standing left, holding Aplustre and with foot on prow of Tireme, between the Cantanaean brothers Anapias and Amphinomus advancing in opposite directions and carrying their parents on their shoulders; PRAEF (partially ligate) above, CLAS ET ORAE MARIT EX S C ("Prefect of the Fleet and the Maritime Coast by Decree of the Senate") (partially ligate) in two lines in exergue.
References:
Crawford -511/3a; CRI-334; RSC-7 (Pompey the Great)
The Battle of Actium - 32 BC
The Battle of Actium - 32 BC
Marc Antony's Legionary Denarii
Marc Antony's Legionary Denarii
After the 2nd Triumvirate succeeded in stamping out the remaining remnants of Liberators and remaining Pompeians, tensions quickly rose between Marc Antony and Octavian. Antony controlled much of the East while Octavian controlled the West of the Republic. Marc Antony raised several new legions alongside of many veterans legions that were raised by Julius Caesar for his Gallic campaigns. To pay these Soldiers, Marc Antony needed to mint an exorbitant amount of money in a small amount of time. Additionally, these coins would need to be minted on the move and away from a fixed mint that would require moving these freshly minted coins to the location of the Legions. To accomplish this, Antony employed a military mint that would travel with the legions and mint coins at their long term camps. These coins are believed to be predominantly minted at Patrae in modern day Greece.
What makes these coins unique, is the iconography depicted on the coins minted for Antony's legions. The observe for these types is standard and depicts the primary fighting vessel of Rome at the time, the Trireme. These warships were rowed by multiple rows of oars during battle and would be used to ram into their adversaries. This icon signified the naval prowess and superiority of Antony's naval fleet over that of his rival Octavian. The reverse, with only one exception, display the heart of the legion, its Eagle or Aquila between two Vexilla or standards. The Legionary Eagle or Aquila, was introduced by Gaius Marius in approximately 107 BC during the Marian Reforms. The aquilae were the legion's identity and any unit that lost there's were disgraced and often given unfavorable assignments or positions in battle. Lastly, each coin would be marked with the number of the legion the coin was minted for. These coins would then be paid directly to the legionnaires at the rate of approximately 5 denarii per week. Not only did these icons provide an immense sense of pride and confidence in their position, it also served as mint marks to ensure the quality control and distribution of these coins to the over 20 legions located in a small area.
However, the uniqueness of these coins does not end there. Because of the sheer quantities minted to pay the legions Antony had assembled, the silver purity was slightly reduced to 92.2% silver when compared to the denarii minted by the Republic which was 96.8% silver. A single legion comprised 5,200 - 5,600 Legionnaires at full strength in 32 BC with the most junior legionnaire receiving 5 Denarii a week. This would cost over 26,000 denarii a week not including higher wages for officers. Multiplying this across the over 20 legions Marc Antony had active at the battle of Actium, demonstrates the enormous quantity that these coins were struck in. Ultimately, the reduced silver content led these coins to be circulated much longer than their Republic and later Imperial counterparts. Most are worn with only a small number that would've been lost or stashed away shortly after their issuing. In the end, Antony's legions lost to Octavian and these coins offer a glimpse of an event that could've dramatically reshaped the Ancient world as we know it.
Cohors Speculatorum
Cohors Speculatorum
Antony’s cohort of speculatores were his scouts, messengers, and gatherers of military intelligence. Each legion would normally have been allocated ten speculatores, but Antony formed a separate cohort of them with specific responsibility to the commander-in-chief. Augustus adopted and developed this unit, and a mounted speculatorian cohort became central to the Praetorian Guard, and had the specific task of guarding the Emperor’s person. The coinage issued for the speculatores varied from the rest of the legionary coinage in two ways: firstly, three standards are shown on the reverse and no eagle. This may indicate that this is not a ‘fighting’ force, but that they were what we would call a support unit. The second difference is that each of the standards is ornamented with two wreaths and the prow of a ship. This may reflect some specific duties that the speculatores held in regard to the navy, or it may reflect their origins as ‘lookouts’ on board vessels. On Roman ships these lookouts mounted a turret (specula) at the stern of the vessel.
Legio Prima
Legio Prima
This was a separate unit from Octavian’s legio I; originally raised by Caesar, the legion appears to have been disbanded, and its troops either retired or merged with Octavian’s legions following the latter's reformation of the armies after his victory at Actium. This is the rarest of the ‘legionary’ denarii with only a handful of specimens known to exist.
Cohors Praetoria
Cohors Praetoria
Originally formed as a small escort for a general they became the elite guards unit of the Roman army. Their name derived from the commander’s tent (praetorium), placed at the centre of a legionary marching camp. The same name was later applied to the commander’s house when the legions moved into permanent garrison forts. Antony probably had four cohorts of Praetorians with him at Actium, and their unique nature is shown by their being honoured alongside, but distinct from, the main legions. After Antony’s defeat Octavian organised a permanent body of nine Praetorian cohorts. They were always regard as elite troops, and lived in better conditions, and received three times the pay of ordinary legionaries. Three of the cohorts were stationed in Rome and the rest were distributed through nearby towns. Sejanus under Tiberius allowed them to build a permanent camp for all the cohorts within the City of Rome, and this enabled them to have their frequently disastrous effect on Imperial politics.
Legio II
This Antonian legion appears to have been disbanded, and its troops either retired or merged with Octavian’s legions following the latter's reformation of the armies after his victory at Actium.
Legio III
This was believed to be the legion known as the Legio III 'Gallica' formed by Julius Caesar. It is known to have served in the East under Antony. It would exist through 4th Century AD in the East.
Legio IV
This legion was later called the 'Scythica', but was probably originally raised by Antony. It was unusual in that it retained its identity even after Octavian’s reformation of the armies following his victory at Actium.
Legio V "Alaudae"
This legion was originally raised by Julius Caesar in Transalpine Gaul; its name, a Gaulish loan-word, meaning the ‘Larks’. Following Caesar’s death in 44 B.C., it was reconstituted by Antony. It would continue to serve until 86 AD when it was destroyed by the Dacians.
Legio VI "Ferrata"
Originally raised by Julius Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul in 52 B.C. Following Caesar’s assassination, it was reconstituted by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 44 B.C., and the following year its control passed to Antony. The legion’s name meant ‘Ironclad’. It would continue to serve into the 4th Century AD
Legio VIII
This Antonian legion appears to have been disbanded, and its troops either retired or merged with Octavian’s legions following the latter's reformation of the armies after his victory at Actium.
Legio IX
Legio X
Legio XI
This Antonian legion appears to have been disbanded, and its troops either retired or merged with Octavian’s legions following the latter's reformation of the armies after his victory at Actium.
Legio XII
Legio XIII
Legio XIV
Legio XV
Legio XVI
Legio XVII
Legio XVIII
Legio XIX
Legio XX
Legio XXI
Legio XXII
Legio XXIII
Google Sites
Report abuse